Psilocybin Mushrooms

Other Names Shrooms; Mushies; Blue Meanies; Golden Tops; Alice; Boomers; Buttons; Caps; Champiñones; Cubes; God’s Flesh; Hongos; Lazers; Liberties; Liberty Caps; Little Smoke; Magic; Mushies; Musk; Pizza Toppings; Psilly Billy; Purple Passion; Silly Putty; Simple Simon; Stemmies; Tweezes[11]

Structure of Psilocybin

Quick Facts

Psilocybin mushrooms are an informal group of psychoactive fungi that contain psilocybin, a psychedelic substance of the tryptamine class:

• Psilocybin or magic mushrooms are naturally occurring and have been consumed for their hallucinogenic effects for millenia
• When psilocybin (which is a prodrug) is taken, it’s converted in the body to psilocin, which is the chemical with the psychoactive properties
• Dose and effect can vary considerably depending upon mushroom type, method of preparation/consumption, and individual difference/tolerance
• Average dried Mushroom dose (P. cubensis):
  • Starter Dose: .5-1.5 grams
  • Common Dose: 1-3 grams
  • Strong Dose: 3-5 grams
  • Heavy Dose: 5+ grams
• Duration: 2-6 hours
• Psilocybin mushrooms are typically described as having an "earthy", "subliminal", or "dream-like" quality.
  • They also are reported to produce slightly more emotion enhancement, time distortion and ego loss, as well as more nausea, confusion, and sedation.
• As a part of the so-called "psychedelic renaissance", they are currently being investigated in the treatment of a number of ailments including anxiety, depression, addiction, and other mental disorders

Introduction

Mushrooms are some of the most mysterious organisms on the planet: They are neither plant or animal, some can feed you, some can heal you, some can kill you and others can take you on a life-changing journey. They can help you live a happier, more fulfilling, more peaceful life. All this not in any physical sense but by inspiring cosmic visions as well as insight into oneself, the world, and the universe around us. I believe that these organisms provide more than just getting high and pretty colors. Paul Stamets would argue further that “Once you come to know these beings, they will forever be your fungal allies. And once befriended, they will entice you to photograph, pick, and partner with them to spread their spores and mycelium.”[133] Hopefully what you read here will help you on your journey with psilocybin mushrooms and their allies. Whether you believe that they will change your life, you must respect these powerful organisms. “The current psilocybin awakening is a cross-cultural transformation emerging from the underground”.[133]

“We are all Indigenous to the Earth. Psilocybin mushrooms unite us. We are One with the Universe.”
- Paul Stamets

Psilocybin containing mushrooms (also known as magic mushrooms, psychedelic mushrooms, shrooms and a host of other names) are one of the most well known psychedelics today. They have a rich history among indigenous groups, hippies, and of recent, scientific studies. There has been substantial work on these species in recent years by geniuses like Paul Stamets, etc. (recommend reading as much as him as possible). This is in stark contrast to decades past as there are scant few references to psilocybin mushrooms in mycological literature. [133] As there has been a lack of academically trained mycologists with expertise in psilocybin mushrooms, amateurs have contributed substantially to the knowledge pool.[133] “Many of the pioneers in mycology were not professionally employed to work on fungi, but were driven by personal fascinations, and fortunately this remains a key aspect of mycology to this day,” observed D.L. Hawksworth in his 2006 article “Mycology and Mycologists. [133] Many times they are the introduction to psychedelics for people due to their relatively low cost, ease of growing, and the possibility of finding them in nature. I have personally taken them many times, including my first time taking any psychedelic drug.

[Just for clarification, there are multiple types of psychoactive fungi, aside from psilocybin containing species. The four types are: 1) fungi with indolic substances, such as psilocybin and psilocin; 2) fungi containing ibotenic acid (such as Amanita muscaria); 3) fungi with well-known ergot alkaloids (ergotamine); 4) fungi used as sacred by some tribes in the world (but without any reliable chemical studies).[20] In this section I will only focus on psilocybin/psilocin containing mushrooms. The other types will be covered in different sections.]

“Psilocybin mushrooms” are a polyphyletic, informal group of psychoactive fungi that contain psilocybin.[3][7] [8] [18] There is not one specific family that all psilocybin mushrooms are found in; they are found in a large array of, in some cases, unrelated species.[3][7] [8] [18] Although a bit confusing, not all psilocybin containing mushrooms are found in the family Psilocybe and not all the species found in Psilocybe contain psilocybin. These mushrooms, as the name suggests, contain psilocybin, which is a psychedelic substance of the tryptamine/indoleamine class or more specifically an indole-alkylamine.[3][7] [8] [18] The genus name “Psilocybe” comes from the Greek words “psilos” (bare) and “kube” (head), warped into New Latin to form “psilocybe”. This translation is most likely referring to the mushrooms’ appearance, with them having smooth heads.

Although the distribution/range of Psilocybin mushrooms is still poorly documented, they are known to occur on all continents (except Antarctica) and have been taxonomically classified into over 200 species, with more than half in the genus Psilocybe. Interestingly the most potent species also belong to the genus Psilocybe.[7] All known psilocybin containing species are naturally occurring saprophytes that occur on decaying matter such as downed trees, detritus, or fecal matter.[10][51] The habitats that these mushrooms are found in has changed drastically due to human impact. Today, many Psilocybes are concentrated wherever people congregate, such as parks, gardens, or even freeway rest areas.[51] This is due to the fact that humans often leave trash, wood, and other compostable items around that fungi mycelium can colonize and fruit from.

History and Culture of Psilocybin Mushrooms

Psilocybin containing mushrooms have been consumed for their hallucinogenic effects for thousands of years and pre-date humanoids.[10][51] They have a long and connected history with humans due to their powerful effects and wide distribution. Based on imagery found in prehistoric rock art, they are thought to have been used by various human cultures since before recorded history.[8] These mushrooms were an important part of ancient Aztec and Mayan cultures, ancient North African cultures, and even ancient European cultures such as the Greeks.[51] Their modern day history begins after Gordon Wasson and his wife Valentina had their trip with psilocybin mushrooms, where they would go on to strongly influence western culture. Before this there are scant few references on psilocybin mushrooms This influence was made possible when Albert Hofmann isolated and synthesized psilocybin in 1958 which was then marketed under the brand name ‘Indocybin’.[4] Along with LSD, they were incorporated into the 1960s youth counterculture movement.[8] Widespread usage of psychedelics provoked a societal backlash, and they were prohibited in 1970.[8] Today, they are among the most widely used psychedelic substances (partly due to the ease of personal cultivation and harvesting). As a part of the so-called "psychedelic renaissance", they are currently being investigated in the treatment of a number of ailments including anxiety, depression, addiction, and other mental health disorders.[8]

More in depth look --> ''History and Culture of Psilocybin Mushrooms''

Chemistry

Structures of Psilocybin and Psilocin

The primary active ingredients in psilocybin mushrooms are psilocybin and psilocin. Psilocybin, or 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT) is a prodrug that is converted into the pharmacologically active compound psilocin (N,N-dimethyltryptamine) in the body by a dephosphorylation reaction in the intestinal mucosa mediated by alkaline phosphatase enzymes and nonspecific esterase. Both psilocybin and psilocin are organic tryptamine/indolamine compounds that are chemically related to the amino acid tryptophan, and structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Substitution of the indole nucleus in position 4 probably plays a substantial role in its hallucinogenic effects.

Psilocybin is a tryptamine compound with a chemical structure containing an indole ring linked to an ethylamine substituent. Tryptamines share a core structure consisting of a bicyclic indole heterocycle attached at R3 to an amino group via an ethyl side chain. Psilocybin is substituted at R4 of its indole heterocycle with a phosphoryloxy (-PO) functional group. It also contains two methyl groups CH3- bound to the terminal amine RN. This makes psilocybin the 4-phosphoryloxy ring-substituted analog of DMT.

Biosynthesis

Fungi are able to make psilocybin through a five step pathway utilizing four enzymes. It was previously thought that the biochemical transformation from tryptophan to psilocybin involved four enzyme reactions: decarboxylation, methylation at the N9 position, 4-hydroxylation, and O-phosphorylation, however recent analyses of isolated enzymes demonstrate that O-phosphorylation is the third step in P. cubensis.

The sequence of the intermediate enzymatic steps has been shown to involve 4 different enzymes (PsiD, PsiH, PsiK, and PsiM) in P. cubensis and P. cyanescens, although the biosynthetic pathway may differ between species. Namely PsiD, a new class of fungal L-tryptophan decarboxylase, PsiH a monooxygenase, PsiK a kinase that catalyzes the phosphotransfer step, catalyzing N,N-dimethylation as the final step in the biosynthesis.[52] These enzymes are encoded in gene clusters in Psilocybe, Panaeolus, and Gymnopilus. The biosynthesis pathway starts with L-Tryptophan going through a decarboxylation reaction to form tryptamine with PsiD catalyzing the reaction. Filled by an oxidation reaction and an O-phosphorylation reaction.

There is new interesting research looking into modular biosynthetic production of psilocybin. Using bacteria or fungal cells some studies have shown significant steps toward demonstrating the feasibility of industrial production of biologically derived psilocybin.[52]

Alkaloids

Besides the well known alkaloids (organic nitrogen-containing bases) psilocybin and psilocin (4-HO-DMT) there are other tryptamines and chemicals present to varying degrees in psilocybin-producing mushrooms.[63] Some related tryptamines are: 4-hydroxytryptamine; norbaeocystin(4-PO-T) baeocystin(4-PO-NMT) norpsilocin; and and aeruginascin(4-PO-TMT). There is also recent evidence that trace amounts of 𝛽-carbolines with known MAOI properties were identified in several Psilocybe species.[63] Baeocystin, norbaeocystin, norpsilocin, and aeruginascin are all generally present in much smaller quantities than psilocin and psilocybin (if they are present at all).[60] There are many other chemicals present in psilocybin containing mushrooms, with a possibility that some of these may also be psychoactive.[60] There have been rumors that some species of psilocybin mushrooms may contain small amounts of DMT, yet there has been no scientific evidence of this.[60]

The tryptamines can be generalized as possessing either a hydroxy (-OH) or phosphate (OPO₃H^-) substitution at the 4-position of the indole core (R¹) and containing sequentially increasing degrees of N-Methylation at the terminal nitrogen (R²).[63] There has been speculation about the biological relevance of these alkaloids and their contribution to psychedelic effects.[60][63] Unfortunately, there have been few studies to evaluate the pharmacological activity of these tryptamines.[63] There has been anecdotal evidence by individuals experienced with psychedelics that claim variability in effects when consuming species with different levels of tryptamines, specifically baeocystin or norpsilocin.[63] ==Pharamcology

All of these are chemical compounds that can be obtained from dried or fresh hallucinogenic mushrooms.[7][52] They all have a structure very similar to the amino acid tryptophan and serotonin.[3][17] Because of this similarity, they can bind to receptors in the brain that are meant for serotonin.[13] Binding and activation of a variety of serotonin receptor sites, especially the 5-HT2A receptor, correlate with the manifestation of psychedelic effects.[17]

Dosage

The typical dose of psilocybin mushrooms used for recreational purposes varies depending on form (dried vs. wet), method of administration, experience, strain/species, and individual preference. It can be difficult to determine the exact species of mushroom or how much hallucinogen each mushroom contains.[7] It is most commonly in the 1-3 grams range, however people have been known to take 5g+. Peak effects usually occur 1 to 2 hours after ingestion, with the total experience lasting for about six hours.[7]

Subjective Effects

Subjective effects include visual geometry, hallucinatory states, time distortion, enhanced introspection, conceptual thinking, euphoria, and ego loss.[8] The intensity and duration of effects can vary greatly depending on factors such as species and batch, which can complicate standardized dosing information.[8] They are often described to evoke entheogenic, mystical-like, or transpersonal experiences that may facilitate self-reflection and personal growth.[8]

In distinction to psychedelics like LSD, mescaline, and 2C-B, which may be described as "stimulating", "cerebral", and "bright", psilocybin mushrooms are typically described as having an "earthy", "subliminal", or "dream-like" quality.[8] They also are reported to produce slightly more emotion enhancement, time distortion and ego loss than the aforementioned substances, as well as more nausea, confusion, and sedation.[8] Unlike most highly prohibited substances, psilocybin mushrooms have low abuse potential and are neither addictive nor physiologically toxic.[8] However, adverse psychological reactions such as severe anxiety, paranoia, delusions and psychosis are always possible, particularly among individuals predisposed to mental disorders.[8]

Psilocybin mushrooms have a wide range of subjective effects that impact cognitive, physical, visual, and auditory processes. They are most known for their trippy visual effects and headspace along with an inability to discern fantasy from reality.[6][8]Although their effects vary significantly with dose, set, setting, previous experience, emotions and personality; there are commonalities.[10] The effects are largely similar to those of other hallucinogens, such as mescaline or LSD.[6][8] Psilocybin mushrooms have a headspace that is commonly described as extremely relaxing, profound and stoning in style compared to more stimulating psychedelics such as LSD or 2C-B.[8] They are also regarded as being less clear-headed than other commonly used tryptamines such as 4-AcO-DMT, DMT and ayahuasca.[8] This may be due to the presence of other alkaloids like norbaeocystin and baeocystin.[8] There seems to be debate on if different routes of administration cause the same effects, especially with the lack of other alkaloids in some methods, however many studies show similar effects between IV pure psilocybin/psilocin and orally ingested psilocybin.[76] In general, the effects include euphoria, visual and mental hallucinations[76], changes in perception[76], distorted sense of time[76], perceived spiritual experiences[6][76], and loss of sense of self.[76] There are also a slew of possible negative effects which are discussed in a later section.

We’ll start by looking at scientific studies involving animals. Although I don’t necessarily agree with using animals in these types of studies, the results are meaningful. These studies mainly looked at physiological and psychological reactions using pure psilocybin and psilocin in the range of 0.25–10 mg/kg; however doses up to 80 mg/kg have also been used.[3] Characteristic effects of the autonomic nervous system that were notable for the whole animal (mice, rats, rabbits, cats and dogs) with doses of 10 mg/kg s.c. included: mydriasis (dilated pupils), piloerection (goosebumps), irregularities in heart and breathing rate and discrete hyperglycaemic and hypertonic effects. These effects can be interpreted as an excitatory syndrome caused by central stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system.[2] Psilocin also suppresses exploration and habituation elements and induces manifestations of behavioral serotonin syndrome (e.g. head twitch behavior).[3] In psilocybin self-administration experiments, with macaques, at sufficiently high doses the drug provoked stereotypical visual scanning, head shaking, bizarre postures, hyperactivity and focusing on an empty spot in a room with catching non-existent flies.[3] It is therefore very likely that this is a direct manifestation of an altered perception, especially visual hallucinations.[3]

Similarly as in animals, many of these effects are seen in humans, but luckily there are descriptions of what they actually feel like. Studies found that psilocybin slightly stimulates sympathetic activity (mydriasis, mild increase in blood pressure and increased heart rate) at doses higher than 3–8 mg p.o. (0.1-0.2 mg/kg) with the full effect at 8–25 mg p.o, similarly to studies done with various animals.[3][59] More specifically hallucinations begin when the dose is more than 10-15mg.[59][70] Very low doses cause drowsiness and emphasize the pre existing mood.[3] In a medium dosage (12–20 mg p.o.), psilocybin was found to produce a well-controllable altered state of consciousness.[2] Although these dose ranges are good estimates the effects and and intensity are poorly predicted by drug dose.[76] The altered state is marked by stimulation of affect, enhanced ability for introspection and altered psychological functioning in the direction of a hypnagogic experience and dream.[2] The phenomenology of psilocybin intoxication includes a wide range of changes such as in perception (dream-like states, illusions, hallucinations, synesthesia) including changes in body image (e.g. paraesthesia in the form of a tingling, dreaminess or somatic hallucinations), altered self-perception, derealization and depersonalization, impaired perception of time and space, impaired attention, thought content disorder (magical thinking, unusual ideas or delusions), change of intuition and sometimes also mood swings, symptoms of anxiety or elation, impaired concentration, and nervousness.[3][76]

The emotional state can also vary greatly from ecstatic and pleasant feelings to anxiety.[3] Psilocybin induces an overall inactivation and tiredness, dazed state, introversion, increased emotional excitability, increased sensitivity and persisting dreaminess for up to 24h, however most of these effects will fade after 6-8 hours.[3] Psilocybin alters several domains of cognitive function and information processing which selectively reduces the ability to visually distinguish between faces with negative and neutral expressions but not positive-neutral faces, disrupts sustained attention, and alters visual information processing.[3] Furthermore, psilocybin has minimal effects on many bodily functions. It has no effect on electrocardiograph (ECG) or body temperature.[3] It also does not acutely affect the ionic balance, blood glucose or cholesterol, and even in high doses has only a negligible effect on plasma concentration or the activity of various enzymes (lactate dehydrogenase, alanine transami- nase, alkaline phosphatase and cholinesterase, mild elevation of aspartate aminotransferase and γ-glutamyl transferase).[3]

Time Frame

The time frame is usually around 6 hours with a peak at about 1-1.5 hours after ingestion. This is assuming the oral consumption of dried/wet mushrooms. After ingestion there is a rapid increase of psilocin plasma levels followed by a plateau about 50 minutes later, after which there is a relatively slow decline of the curve, ending at about 6 hours.[2] This is confirmed by the subjective impressions of the subjects and Leuner’s diagram of the clinical course (below).[2] The effects last from 3 to 6 hours, however some after effects (comedown) may last up to 8+ hours.[2][8][70][82] The effects of psilocybin can be divided into multiple stages.[59] The first stage starts from 20-45 minutes after oral ingestion.[8][59][82] This is the onset stage. If mushrooms are consumed in the form of a liquid (soup/tea) effects will occur earlier.[59] The second stage is the come up stage of neurological symptoms.[59] This stage can start at varying times depending on when the onset starts, however it usually lasts for about an hour.[3] The peak stage usually occurs around an hour and half after ingestion and can last from 1-2 hours.[3][8][59] At this stage the feeling is very strong, with feelings of derealization, weightlessness, visual disturbances, anxiety, and brain vertigo.[59] During the offset stage, the symptoms gradually disappear.[59] This period can be accompanied by lethargy and extreme exhaustion.[59] Mild adverse effects, like sleep problems generally remain present for up to 12 hours.[70]

General Time Frame for orally ingested dry mushrooms: (all times are approximations)

• Ingestion: 00:00
• Onset 00:20 - 00:45
• Come up: 00:30 - 01:30
• Peak: 01:30 - 03:00
• Offset: 03:00 - 06:00
• After effects: can last up to 24 hours

The time frame greatly changes for intravenous administration (effects wear off ~60 min after injection)

Systematic Classification and Distribution

Fungi with psychoactive properties are highly diverse and have a wide distribution throughout the world. There are numerous genera containing psilocybin across the globe. Some of these being: Copelandia, Galerina, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Mycena, Panaeolus, Pholiotina, Pluteus, and Psilocybe.[18] Over 100 species are classified in the genus Psilocybe alone, and because of this Psilocybe is the most well known genus.[8][64] Classifying psilocybin mushrooms isn't that simple however. There is still debate about certain species compounded with issues identifying mushrooms correctly.[20] In the genus Psilocybe there are problems in the taxonomic definitions of some species too.[20] In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered neurotropic fungi to be distributed among the following genera: Psilocybe (116 species), Gymnopilus (14), Panaeolus (13), Copelandia (12), Pluteus (6) Inocybe (6), Pholiotina (4) and Galerina (1).[20] Besides the genus Psilocybe, where more than half of the species are psilocybin producing, the vast majority of the species in these genera are not active.[51] Some species of mushrooms are much more commonly seen and used by humans for their psychotropic effects.

The distribution of psychoactive fungi is still poorly documented, however species have been found as far north as Alaska and Siberia to as far south as Chile, Australia, and New Zealand and from sea level to regions up to 4,000m in elevation.[20] It was said that “The mushrooms occur in abundance wherever mycologists abound”.[20] Current estimates suggest that many of them are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed throughout Canada and the US (22), Europe (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19).[19] This is however not the true numbers since there are still not records of neurotropic fungi from several parts of the world, even from certain states such as my home state Illinois.[20] Although they occur on all continents, historically the majority of neurotropic Psilocybe grow in subtropical, mesophytic, cloud or deciduous forests of Mexico, Caribbean region, eastern US and Central Europe.[20] The diversity, ecological and geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi is vast and complex with new species constantly being found.[20]

Generally, Psilocybin mushrooms are saprophytes, meaning that they grow on dead material.[51] These species grow in meadows and woods throughout most of the world, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris.[51] Many of these thrive after ecological disturbances and catastrophes such as landslides, floods or hurricanes.[51] Before human impact psilocybin species were restricted to narrowly defined ecosystems.[51] These ranges have grown substantially for all psilocybin mushrooms as humans destroy woodlands and engage in artificial construction.[51] Psilocybes, being saprophytes, feed on on the surplus of wood chips and wood scrap especially wherever humans, forests, and grasslands struggle to coexist.[51] Today, many Psilocybes are concentrated wherever people congregate, such as parks, gardens, or even freeway rest areas.[51]As unfortunate as it is since human development seems interwoven with ecological disaster psilocybin mushrooms and civilization will continue to coevolve.[51] This adaptation is in stark contrast to their historical ranges. An example of the human influence on the proliferation of these mushrooms is P. cubensis. This species has become the most common Psilocybe because it was imported into the western hemisphere with the Spanish missionaries and slave traders via the cattle they brought with them.[20][51] It is also the most commonly cultivated mushroom in the world.[51] P. semilanceata has also experienced widespread proliferation, and can now be found throughout the world while also being the most common European fungus.[51][58] Nonnative mushrooms have also spread with the importation of exotic plants.[51] A prime example of this is P. cyanescens which is was brought to the pacific northwest of the U.S. through rhododendrons from Europe.

Present in varying concentrations in about 200 species of Basidiomycota mushrooms, psilocybin evolved from its ancestor, muscarine, some 10 to 20 million years ago. The evolutionary advantage of psilocybin for expanding the range of these mushrooms is evident. The production of psilocybin has proven to be a competitive advantage due to the association of this compound with humans and in a way the connection to nature that it causes.[51] These mushrooms seemingly carry a message from nature. Oftentimes the ingestion of these mushrooms causes a deeper connection to nature and even a call to action to protect nature.

Genus

There are new species of psilocybin containing mushrooms being found yearly. As of writing this I am aware of three new psilocybin species within the last year. One of which even being found in the Midwest of the U.S.

Approximately 250 species

• Psilocybe: 168 species
• Panaeolus: 17 species
• Gymnopilus: 16 species
• Pluteus: 8 species
• Inocybe: 6 species
• Conocybe/Conocybula: 4 species
• Gerlina: 1 species

Psilocybe Inocybe A large genus of mushrooms in the order Agaricales and family Cortinariaceae with an estimated 848 species.[59] The genus has a wide distribution in temperate and tropical forest regions of the Northern Hemisphere. As for morphological characteristics: the fruiting bodies are small, the cap is deep cinnamon-brown to rust-brown oblate with hair scales up to 4 cm in diameter Known to contain muscarine, psilocin, psilocybin, aeruginascin and baeocystin

Habitat

I have learned much of my mushroom identification skills from the guru Paul Stamets. I am doing my best to combine his knowledge with mine; however, I highly recommend that if you are looking to go forage for wild psilocybin mushrooms you read his books first. The success of a mushroom hunting trip depends on sounds knowledge, timing, habitat awareness, and luck.[133] Although psilocybin mushroom species appear to be safe, some mushroom species that grow among silocybin mushrooms produce toxic compounds that can be deadly.[133]

Psilocybin mushrooms are diverse - they come in many shapes, sizes, and colors.[133] They grow in fields and forests.[133] Many are considered saprophytes, meaning that they gain their energy from decomposing organic material. This shines a light on which types of habitats and microhabitats different mushroom species can be found in. The habitat that a mushroom is found in used to be a more important feature in the identification of the mushroom, however recently with the human impact, habitats change very quickly and can be misleading.[51] As forests are cut and are replaced by grasslands a new mix of mushroom species can be found.[51] This can add confusion since woodland and forest species can be found in these areas.[51] There are however, some species of psilocybin mushrooms that are truly habitat specific.[51] These habitats can be separated into 6 distinct habitats where psilocybin mushrooms flourish in: grasslands, dung deposits, riparian zones/disturbed habitats/gardens, woodlands, mosslands, and burned lands.[51]

Grasslands: Grasslands habitats, especially wet swampy lowlands, support many of the tall, thin, small, conic-capped Psilocybes.[51] This habitat also harbors many of the humus-loving species (those mushrooms thriving in a variety of soils, from red clays to dark loams).[51] The best spot to find psilocybe species in grasslands is along thin borders of forestlands which are naturally shadier and cooler.[51] There is also evidence that in grasslands that were grazed by domesitcated livestock these species tend to be more prolific, this could possibly be due to the dung deposits.[51] Throughout the world, the noble dung heap provides a reliable and easy to find habitat

Dung Deposits: Dung is a great supporter of mushrooms.[51] Since dung deposits are relatively short-lived habitats, the mushrooms that flourish do so in a matter of days.[51] The most prominent species to exploit the dung niche are Psilocybe cubensis, Psilocybe coprophilia, Panaeolus cyanescens, and Panaeolus subbalteatus.[51]

Riparian Zones: These habitats are created from flooding rivers.[51] They erode away soils, trees, and just about anything in their path.[51] This causes there to be an abundance of scattered, broken wood fragments and tangled root balls that have collected debris as the higher waters recede.[51] Many of the species found here will also grow in disturbed habitats.[51]

Disturbed Habitats: Some examples of this type of habitat include: roads punched into a forest; the grounds around a construction site; and landslides.[51] The first two years in these habitats tend to be the most prolific because as time goes on resources are consumed. By the fourth or fifth year there are not enough resources to sustain saprophytic mushrooms.[51[ However, if new debris is added or the soil upturned, these habitats can rebound with additional populations of psilocybin mushrooms.[51] Gardens: Gardens are rich environments for producing psilocybin mushrooms.[51] Oftentimes gardeners unwittingly cultivate mushrooms by importing exotic plants, amending soils, composting refuse, and faithfully watering.[51] Gardeners also have an inclination to introduce the manure of cows, horses, or even “zoo-doo” which makes gardens hospitable place for psilocybin mushrooms.[51]

Gardens rich in manure often sprout Panaeolus subbalteatus in temperate climates and Panaeolus cyanescens in subtropical climates. Vegetable gardens tend to support the terricolous Psilocybes (i.e. mushrooms growing out of the ground), while ornamental gardens, richer in wood debris, support more lignicolous species (i.e. growing from wood).[51] Some successful exploiters of this niche are: Psilocybe baeocystis, Psilocybe caerulescens, Psilocybe stuntzii, and Psilocybe subaeruginosa.[51]

Woodlands: This category is the most expansive. There are a vast array of different types of woodlands based on altitude, temperature, and rainfall.[51] As an example, Psilocybin mushrooms are rarely found in the deeper forests of the Pacific northwest, but are found extensively in the pine forests closer to the equatorial subtropics.[51] Interestingly, few psilocybin mushrooms grow in the woodlands of the true tropics (at least as far as we know).[51] Deciduous trees (cottonwoods, alders, willows, box elders, sweet gums, hornbeans, etc.) thriving in moist soils along streams, ponds, and lakes support Psilocybe.[51] Psilocybes are generally rare in these environments, however deciduous woodlands devastated by recurring cataclysms tend to be better habitats for psilocybin fungi.[51]

Mosslands: Mosslands, such as those covered in Sphagnum, are generally poor habitats for psilocybin mushrooms.[51] Few, psilocybin mushrooms are found exclusively in mosslands.[51] However, Psilocybe baeocystis and Psilocybe cyanfibrillosa have been seen growing directly from moss.[51]

Burned lands: Burned lands are not good places to find psilocybin mushrooms.[51] Burned lands undergoing natural rebirth can support Psilocybes, but by themselves, without revegetation, do not produce well[51]

Hunting

Mushroom hunting is dangerous. NEVER eat any mushroom you are not %100 confident in. It is not advised to eat ANY wild mushroom without proper identification

Mushroom hunting can be fun and bountiful, however proper identification is a MUST. A mistake in a mushroom ID can be lethal.[51] There are a lot of good references and ID guides to familiarize yourself with. I go over some common species that can be found, however there are many more. The more knowledgeable you become about all kinds of mushroom indemnification, the safer you will be!

If you have any uncertainty about the identification of a mushroom, do not eat it! Much of how humans have found out what types of mushrooms are poisonous or nonpoisonous has been through trial and error unfortunately. However, since little brown mushrooms have never been sought after for food, little has been known about their biochemistry until now.[51]

Some mushrooms belonging to the genus Galerina that resemble Psilocybes and can be deadly are G. autumnalis, G.marginata, and G.venenata.[51] These mushrooms contain amatoxins (cyclopeptides) similar to those found in the lethal species of Amanita, such as A. phalloides, A. bisporigera, and A. verna (the “destroying angels”).[51] Luckily Amanitas do not resemble Psilocybes, however the general form of Galerinas closely parallels that of the Psilocybes.[51] Psilocybes and Galerinas differ only in the overall color of their spores, purplish brown vs. rusty brown, and to a lesser degree the color of their caps.[51] However, when the caps are dried/frozen the color can be nearly identical.[51] Another deadly rusty brown-spored mushroom, Pholiotina filaris also contains these amatoxins.[51] In some areas Psilocybe can be growing within inches of Galerina and P. filaris.[51] Other brown-spored genera that have an abundance of poisonous species are Inocybe, Cortinarius, Hebeloma, and Entoloma.[51]

By taking spore prints, paying attention to detail, and following keys, the possibility of ingesting poisonous mushrooms is minimized. However, there are plenty of species that have not been fully tested, such as bluing Incybes, which contain psilocybin, but should be treated with extreme caution because their close relatives can be very poisonous.[51]

Cytochrome oxidase oxidizes the dephosphorization of psilocybin to produce the blue product, and hallucinogenic mushrooms that contain the toxin often turn blue after being picked [44]. So, we can identify the hallucinogenic mushroom by this way.[59]

Toxicity and Harm Potential

It has been found that the use of magic mushrooms rarely (if ever) leads to physical or psychological dependence, that acute and chronic adverse effects are relatively infrequent and generally mild, that public health and public order effects are very limited and that criminality related to the use, production and trafficking of magic mushrooms is almost non-existent.[70] Psilocybin and psilocin are starting to be widely used in the treatment neurological diseases, drug addiction, and psychotherapy due to their mild toxic effects[4]

References